References (Section 10) References for “Research – good, bad, and unnecessary”: 1 Equator network resource centre for good reporting of health research studies: […] Pester power and new drugs ‘New drugs by their very nature are incomplete products, as full information about their safety, effectiveness and impact on costs […] Who decides what gets studied? Clearly this situation is unsatisfactory, so how has it come about? One reason is that what gets studied by researchers […] A commonsense approach to informed consent in good medical practice ‘What is missing in the debate surrounding informed consent is the true nature of patient understanding, what information patients want […] Why are fair tests of treatments needed? In this sub-section Nature, the healer (this page) The beneficial effects of optimism and wishful thinking The need to go […] Stepwise progress doesn’t hit the headlines Science itself works very badly as a news story: it is by its very nature a subject for the “features” […] Earlier is not necessarily better Key points Earlier does not necessarily lead to better ; sometimes it makes matters worse programmes should only be introduced […] We do things because… ‘We [doctors] do things, because other doctors do so and we don’t want to be different, so we do so; […] Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
Pester power and new drugs ‘New drugs by their very nature are incomplete products, as full information about their safety, effectiveness and impact on costs […] Who decides what gets studied? Clearly this situation is unsatisfactory, so how has it come about? One reason is that what gets studied by researchers […] A commonsense approach to informed consent in good medical practice ‘What is missing in the debate surrounding informed consent is the true nature of patient understanding, what information patients want […] Why are fair tests of treatments needed? In this sub-section Nature, the healer (this page) The beneficial effects of optimism and wishful thinking The need to go […] Stepwise progress doesn’t hit the headlines Science itself works very badly as a news story: it is by its very nature a subject for the “features” […] Earlier is not necessarily better Key points Earlier does not necessarily lead to better ; sometimes it makes matters worse programmes should only be introduced […] We do things because… ‘We [doctors] do things, because other doctors do so and we don’t want to be different, so we do so; […] Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
Who decides what gets studied? Clearly this situation is unsatisfactory, so how has it come about? One reason is that what gets studied by researchers […] A commonsense approach to informed consent in good medical practice ‘What is missing in the debate surrounding informed consent is the true nature of patient understanding, what information patients want […] Why are fair tests of treatments needed? In this sub-section Nature, the healer (this page) The beneficial effects of optimism and wishful thinking The need to go […] Stepwise progress doesn’t hit the headlines Science itself works very badly as a news story: it is by its very nature a subject for the “features” […] Earlier is not necessarily better Key points Earlier does not necessarily lead to better ; sometimes it makes matters worse programmes should only be introduced […] We do things because… ‘We [doctors] do things, because other doctors do so and we don’t want to be different, so we do so; […] Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
A commonsense approach to informed consent in good medical practice ‘What is missing in the debate surrounding informed consent is the true nature of patient understanding, what information patients want […] Why are fair tests of treatments needed? In this sub-section Nature, the healer (this page) The beneficial effects of optimism and wishful thinking The need to go […] Stepwise progress doesn’t hit the headlines Science itself works very badly as a news story: it is by its very nature a subject for the “features” […] Earlier is not necessarily better Key points Earlier does not necessarily lead to better ; sometimes it makes matters worse programmes should only be introduced […] We do things because… ‘We [doctors] do things, because other doctors do so and we don’t want to be different, so we do so; […] Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
Why are fair tests of treatments needed? In this sub-section Nature, the healer (this page) The beneficial effects of optimism and wishful thinking The need to go […] Stepwise progress doesn’t hit the headlines Science itself works very badly as a news story: it is by its very nature a subject for the “features” […] Earlier is not necessarily better Key points Earlier does not necessarily lead to better ; sometimes it makes matters worse programmes should only be introduced […] We do things because… ‘We [doctors] do things, because other doctors do so and we don’t want to be different, so we do so; […] Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
Stepwise progress doesn’t hit the headlines Science itself works very badly as a news story: it is by its very nature a subject for the “features” […] Earlier is not necessarily better Key points Earlier does not necessarily lead to better ; sometimes it makes matters worse programmes should only be introduced […] We do things because… ‘We [doctors] do things, because other doctors do so and we don’t want to be different, so we do so; […] Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
Earlier is not necessarily better Key points Earlier does not necessarily lead to better ; sometimes it makes matters worse programmes should only be introduced […] We do things because… ‘We [doctors] do things, because other doctors do so and we don’t want to be different, so we do so; […] Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
We do things because… ‘We [doctors] do things, because other doctors do so and we don’t want to be different, so we do so; […] Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
Introduction ‘There is no way to know when our observations about complex events in nature are complete. Our knowledge is finite, […] Prev 1 2 Jargon buster Select a termacceptability adherence adverse effect adverse event allocation allocation bias allocation schedule allocation schedule concealment applicability association attrition bias average average difference baseline characteristics before-after study benefit bias blinding burden case report case series case-control study causal association certainty of the evidence change in cost cluster cluster randomized study cohort study comparative study comparing like with like confidence interval confidence region confirmation bias conflicts of interests confounders contamination controlled before-after study controlled study cost cost-effectiveness critical assessment cross-sectional study crossover study cut-off value data collection data fishing diagnosis diagnostic algorithm diagnostic odds ratio diagnostic test diagnostic test accuracy difference direct comparison disease progression bias disease stage disease status double blinding double dummy dramatic treatment effect drug effect estimate effectiveness efficiency eligibility criteria enrolment estimate evidence evidence profile evidence to decision framework explanatory trial exploratory analysis extrapolated evidence factorial study fair comparisons of treatments false negative test result false negative test result (duplicate) false positive test result false positive test result (duplicate) follow-up forest plot GRADE guideline high certainty of the evidence important imprecision incidence inconsistency incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indeterminate diagnostic test result index test indicator indirect comparison indirectness informed consent intention-to-treat analysis interim analysis interrupted time series study lead-time bias length-time bias level of evidence likelihood likelihood ratio loss to follow-up low certainty of the evidence low risk of bias measurement bias meta-analysis minimization moderate certainty of the evidence modified intention-to-treat analysis monitoring multicentre study multiple statistical comparisons natural course of health problems negative predictive value nocebo effect non-random allocation non-randomized study number needed to harm number needed to screen number needed to treat objective outcome odds odds ratio outcome outcome measured on a scale overdiagnosis overtreatment p-value paired study design for diagnostic tests parallel group study peer review performance bias perspective phase 1 trial phase 2 trial phase 3 trial phase 4 trial PICO placebo placebo effect planned analysis play of chance positive predictive value pragmatic trail pre-test probability precision prevalence primary outcome prognosis prognostic variable protocol or study plan qualitative study quality-adjusted life years quantitative study random random allocation randomized study reference standard test regulation of research relative effect reliability repeated measures study reporting bias reproducibility research research data research evidence research methods research priorities resource use risk of bias risk ratio sample sample size scale screening screening test secondary outcome selection criteria sensitivity shared decision making single blinding single participant trial smallest important difference specificity spin sponsor bias statistical power statistically significant stratified randomization strength of recommendation study study participants study population subgroup subgroup analysis summary of findings surrogate outcome systematic review target condition theory time horizon treatment treatment comparison treatment comparison group treatment effect treatment effect trial phases triple blinding true negative test result true positive test result type of study uncertainty under-reporting undesirable effect unfairness unit of analysis error utility value value variables very low certainty of the evidence yes/no outcomes About GET-IT GET-IT provides plain language definitions of health research terms
